Social Media, Disinformation, and AI: Transforming the Landscape of the 2024 U.S. Presidential Political Campaigns

Political campaigns have been repurposed to accommodate the importance of social media platforms as powerful tools for communication, outreach, and influence. The 2024 U.S. presidential election highlighted the key role of social media presence in reaching the American audience. Candidates leveraged these platforms to communicate directly with voters, raise funds, and conduct interviews. Amidst a tense election period, candidates from both U.S. parties extensively used social media to energize their base and attract new followers. Platforms such as X (formerly Twitter) and TikTok were at the forefront of campaign strategies, offering cost-effective solutions compared to traditional advertising budgets. Through viral campaigning—using reposts, retweets, and the generation of new visual content—a single message can go viral and reach millions instantly. This election also saw new uses of social media, a growing presence of AI-generated content, and, inevitably, the persistent challenge of disinformation.

The Importance of Social Media in U.S. Elections from a Historical Perspective

The influence of social media on U.S. elections has been significant for quite some time. This impact first became evident during Barack Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign, where he was the first candidate to effectively utilize social media as a central tool in his political campaign.[1] His campaign[2] demonstrated that platforms like Facebook could dramatically enhance outreach and engagement, proving them essential for modernizing electoral campaigns and reenergizing a disengaged voter base, marking a pivotal moment in political communication. A more dramatic shift occurred in 2016 with Donald Trump’s campaign. The Trump team strategically leveraged social media, particularly Twitter, as a primary means of communication. Trump’s unique and direct messaging style resonated with a broad audience, helping him amass a substantial following. An original approach was also reposting followers’ tweets reaching 78%, compared with none by Hillary Clinton.[3] In contrast, Hillary’s campaign, although having a dynamic presence, shared content similar to television programs where she would be seen delivering written speeches to a camera or having comedy skits, leading to incredibly lower traffic compared to Trump.[4] At the time, Trump was leading Hilary in followers[5] and his posts on Twitter were retweeted almost 6,000 times, compared to a bit over 1,500 for Clinton.[6] Another important boost in the popularity of social media at that time is that, while social media platforms were initially targeted at younger audiences, by 2016, older generations had also become active users, further increasing the platforms’ political relevance. This expansion of the user base underscored the growing importance of social media as an indispensable tool in being informed on news. As evidenced, a study found that “44% of U.S. adults received information about the 2016 presidential election from social media, and 24% turned to social media posts made directly by the candidates to get information about the election.”[7]  Young voters were the group most influenced by social media as a third (35%) of 18- to 29-year-olds replied that social media sites were their most helpful source type learning for the elections,[8] while this reliance notably diminished among older age groups.

The Influence of Social Media in the 2024 U.S. Elections

The 2024 U.S. presidential election highlighted the growing influence of social media in shaping political campaigns and voter engagement. According to a survey by the Pew Research Center, over half of U.S. adults (54%) consume news from social media, with Facebook and YouTube leading as primary platforms.[9] Demographic differences revealed women favoring TikTok, Instagram, and Facebook, while men gravitated towards Reddit, X (formerly Twitter), and YouTube. X stood out for having the most balanced political affiliation distribution, with 48% of its users leaning Republican and 47% Democratic. Moreover, when it comes to politics X stands out with 59% of X users[10] following politics or political issues on the platform. This explains why X became central to the 2024 campaigns, especially under Elon Musk’s ownership, which emphasized free speech even though this feeling was most shared by Republican X users are far more likely than Democratic users to see it as mostly good for democracy (53% vs. 26%).[11] Still, both political camps heavily promoted their presence on the platform, capitalizing on its unique reach and user dynamics.

Traditional media, by contrast, continued its decline in influence. OECD data shows that the global print advertising market dropped by nearly 40% between 2019 and 2024, significantly impacting news outlets. The U.S. Census Bureau has also noted a significant turn from print to digital media while US print newspaper circulation has fallen 14% in 2023. Digital circulation, subscriber base and webpage audience traffic of US newspapers online have also significantly declined indicating that public trust in traditional media has also waned, with many perceiving it as highly polarized and party affiliated. This erosion of trust further solidified social media’s role as the dominant platform for political engagement.

TikTok emerged as a contentious yet essential campaign tool. Despite being labeled a national security threat under Trump’s administration and facing similar scrutiny under Joe Biden, both Trump and Kamala Harris joined the platform during the campaign. Trump stated he had no intention of banning TikTok[12], while Harris clarified before her nomination, “We do not intend to ban TikTok. We need to deal with the owner, and we have national security concerns about the owner of TikTok, but we have no intention to ban TikTok.”[13] Nevertheless, Harris did not respond[14] to requests for further comments on her position regarding the platform as the Democrat’s candidate. Yet, their presence on TikTok reflects its growing importance, even amid concerns over its ownership and data privacy.

One of the most impactful aspects of social media in the 2024 election was microtargeting, where tailored messages were delivered to specific voter segments based on their interests and demographics. For instance, a 2021 interview with Tucker Carlson of Fox News featuring then-Senate candidate J.D. Vance, where Vance criticized Vice President Harris and other Democrats as “childless cat ladies,” resurfaced when the Harris campaign[15] seized on the remark. The hashtag  “#childless cat lady“[16] soon became viral, appealing to a significant demographic of unmarried women, who constituted a critical part of Harris’s campaign.

Social media also played a pivotal role in monitoring public sentiment and tracking real-time engagement through metrics like likes, reposts, and followers. Candidate follower counts highlighted the digital dynamics: Trump led with 95 million followers[17] on X, his running mate J.D. Vance[18] had 2.8 million, Harris had 21.1 million[19], and her running mate Tim Walz had 1.2 million[20] and Biden had 38.3 million followers[21]. Trump’s engagement metrics on X were significantly higher than his competitors, with a record-breaking interview on Joe Rogan’s podcast[22] garnering extensive viewership across platforms like YouTube and X.

Trump’s social media strategy was also promoted in Truth Social—a platform created by him after being banned from Twitter in January 2021 following the Capitol riots—which has a total of 8.23 million followers[23] given the conservative base of the platform’s followers. Musk reinstated Trump’s X account in November 2022[24], further boosting his visibility on the platform. These trends underscore the transformative impact of social media on political strategy, from enabling microtargeting and real-time analytics to reshaping voter outreach through viral content and direct engagement. These tools have become indispensable in modern elections, continuing to challenge traditional media.

Political and News Influencers and Podcasters as Part of the Election

Both candidates invested significant resources in engaging influencers and content creators, recognizing their importance in disseminating campaign material. The Democratic National Committee (DNC)for the first time even granted press passes[25] to influencers, legitimizing their role as influential voices in political discourse. Similarly, Trump invited influencers onto the stage[26] at his rallies, further integrating them into his campaign strategy. In addition, many influencers were invited to attend events, capture backstage moments, and create short clips with the candidates, amplifying their reach across social media platforms. Interviews with influencers also played a pivotal role in the campaign. Trump, in particular, engaged with influencers and gamers[27] whose primary audiences were on social media, resulting in numerous viral moments that expanded his campaign’s visibility and appeal. Lastly, social media impersonators[28] also became an important aspect of this presidential election, especially on TikTok which emerged as a hub for comedic political content, adeptly targeting receptive audiences.

Using AI both Intentionally and Unintentionally for Mocking and Manipulation

AI played also an important role in the 2024 U.S. presidential election by redefining campaign strategies and at the same time amplifying concerns about its impact on democracy. The rise of AI-generated content sparked scrutiny from lawmakers and the public alike. Congress proposed legislation[29] mandating clear disclosures of AI-generated material in political advertisements, prompting platforms like Meta[30] to require advertisers to label AI-altered content in political and social issue ads. These measures reflected growing fears about misinformation, particularly through the use of deepfakes and personalized political advertising shared also by the public that sees AI having potentially negative effects on elections, with 39% of Americans[31] expressing significant worry that  AI would primarily be used for harmful purposes during the election period.

Political campaigns leveraged AI for tasks such as drafting campaign messages, generating subtitles, creating AI avatars and images and even deploying the first synthetic AI caller as a campaign volunteer.[32] These tools served multiple purposes by mobilizing voters, conveying targeted messages especially to indicate what each opponent’s policies would look like, and even launching attacks on the personal traits of the candidates. Candidates tested AI’s potential in unprecedented ways. Donald Trump from his personal account used an AI image to portray Kamala Harris as a communist dictator and manipulated endorsements to indicate celebrity support by including an AI-generated image of Taylor Swift expressing support for him.[33] On the other hand, the Harris campaign was accused of using an AI image photo of a crowd at one of her rallies, a fact that was later debunked[34] but nevertheless raised the issue of crowd size in both candidate’s[35] narratives. Despite these efforts, studies suggest that AI’s effectiveness in swaying voters appears limited.[36] Such conclusions have been drawn in the context of other elections. Albeit AI’s role in reshaping political communication is significant. By reinforcing existing beliefs and amplifying exposure to like-minded opinions leads to limited exposure to diverse perspectives and contributes to political polarization.

The Role of Disinformation

Disinformation is characterized by a deliberate subversion of the truth and is associated with state-sponsored efforts. It falls under the broader category of false information, which also includes misinformation, fake news, propaganda, and conspiracy theories. Advanced AI tools, like language models and deepfakes, have made these campaigns more sophisticated and harder to counter. The global rise in the use of social media by governments and political parties to influence public opinion[37] has been a notable development in recent years and an integral part of political communication. For example, Russia’s  Internet Research Agency (IRA)[38] controls thousands of social media accounts across various platforms, spreading disinformation to advance political agendas. Similarly, the creation of China’s PLA Strategic Support Force (PLASSF) in 2015 and more importantly the Strategic Support Force which was responsible for information warfare operations via social media indicates China’s emphasis on  information in its strategic concepts.[39] The military rearrangement of the Chinese army with the dissolution of its Strategic Support Force (SSF) and the establishment of a new military force, the Information Support Force (ISF) on April 19, 2024,[40] underscores the emphasis placed on information-related capabilities under the PLA’s informationized warfare concept, which views modern warfare as a broader confrontation between systems with a networked information system at its core. China utilizes content farms[41] as seen extensively during COVID-19 and Taiwanese elections while during the 2024 U.S. elections pushed “Spamouflage” that included a small number of accounts claiming to be American voters and U.S. soldiers.[42] Among various foreign actors conducting influence operations during the 2024 U.S. elections, U.S. intelligence agencies[43] have identified Russia, China, and Iran as the primary foreign actors of concern, with Russia posing the predominant threat as it undermines the role and integrity of democratic institutions and sow societal divisions.

While many of these social media sites are banned, monitored, or censored in these states, they paradoxically use these platforms extensively—with X being the primary platform— to reach international audiences. The emergence of generative AI has provided these state with powerful tools to “improve and accelerate”[44] their efforts to influence voters abroad. Examples include a disinformation campaign linked to Russia spreading a video falsely accusing Kamala Harris of being involved in a hit-and-run accident[45] with the video viewed millions of times on social media. Furthermore, candidates even manipulated irrelevant events to promote their agenda, such as JD Vance claiming that “reports now show that people have had their pets abducted and eaten by people who shouldn’t be in this country.” [46]This story drove the use of AI with numerous AI pictures of Trump saving pets and he even shared one on his Truth social platform.[47]

Moreover, Chinese-controlled bots were targeting voters in specific states like Alabama, Texas, and Tennessee[48] spreading negative content about Senator Marco Rubio of Florida while Chinese-linked group, Storm-1852, pivoted to short-form video content that criticized the Harris campaign.[49] Iran has also ramped up its disinformation activities, both online and through cyber warfare. Iranian groups have been running AI-assisted covert news sites[50] targeting U.S. voters across the political spectrum and used against both campaigns. U.S. intelligence officials have linked Iran to the hack of Donald Trump’s presidential campaign[51], casting this as part of a broader effort to meddle in American politics.

The operations of the troll farms have continued to spread disinformation amidst the elections and have targeted both campaigns by amplifying differences around key issues like race, gender, and LGBTQ+ rights when it comes to Democrats and economy, censorship, and immigration for the Republicans. Some of these groups aim to amplify polarization and disrupt the liberal world order, rather than support specific candidates. Thus, compared to previous efforts that primarily focused on candidates’ personalities, this has shifted to manipulating public opinion on core the two parties’ policies and ideologies. As these campaigns continue to evolve, they raise significant concerns about the integrity of the democratic process, both in the U.S. and globally. While studies recognized that disinformation didn’t tip the scales of elections[52], their main success was in polarizing American society, leading to the public’s distrust in media and democratic institutions.

Preferences of International actors

China and Russia’s political leadership were recently asked to comment on their preferences for the upcoming U.S. elections. President Vladimir Putin specifically stated[53] “As for my preferences, it is not up to us to decide. After all, the American people will have to make their own choice. As I have already said, we favored Mr. Biden, the current President, but they took him out of the race. That said, he advised his supporters to support Ms. Harris. So, we will act accordingly and lend her our support.”

On the other hand, China has refrained from making any formal statements regarding their preference for the outcome of the November 5 election. President Xi Jinping has not expressed any clear support for either candidate, with the Chinese Foreign Ministry referring to the U.S. election as a domestic affair.[54] However, the situation became more complicated due to Tim Walz, the vice-presidential nominee, and his connections to China. In particular, an interview[55] with Jenna Wang, the daughter of a Chinese Communist Party (CCP) official, was published and heavily promoted on Twitter. The interview was circulated not only by media accounts[56] but also by Republican officials[57] and, of course, by bots. Iran’s government spokesperson also mentioned that “the U.S. elections are not really our business. Our policies are steady and don’t change based on individuals.”[58]  These statements reflect efforts by the aforementioned actors to distance themselves from any accusations of interfering in the US election process. Given their worsening relations with the US in recent years, these countries have employed asymmetric warfare tactics while also maintaining diplomatic plausible deniability regarding such accusations. Nonetheless, the Department of State has announced new sanctions against Russia and Iran, specifically on the Cognitive Design Production Center (CPDC), a subordinate organization of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, and the Russia-based Center for Geopolitical Expertise, for interference in U.S. 2024 elections.

Conclusion

The interplay among social media, disinformation, and AI has transformed political campaigns, offering candidates a direct line with voters while reshaping the dynamics of modern elections.  While these tools offer unparalleled opportunities for voter engagement and outreach and despite indicating high levels of political participation, they also pose significant risks to democratic processes. The blurred line between fake news, misinformation, and disinformation also has shown that they further promote societal discord and political polarization. Although future U.S. presidential campaigns will continue to use social media as the primary form of political campaign designing, more emphasis should be placed on due diligence of the messages promoted or associated with these campaigns.